Controlling battery states of charge in systems having separate power sources

ABSTRACT

A control system is designed or configured to control the state of charge of a battery or battery pack in a system containing a separate power source, which is separate from the battery or battery pack. In operation, the battery or battery pack is called upon to intermittently provide power for certain functions. The separate power source may be, for example, an AC electrical power source for a UPS or an engine of a vehicle such as a micro hybrid vehicle. The battery may be a nickel zinc aqueous battery. The control system may be designed or configured to implement one or more of the following functions: monitoring the state of charge of the battery or battery pack; directing rapid recharge of the battery or battery pack from the separate power source when the battery or battery pack is not performing its functions; and directing charge to fully charged level or a float charge level, which is different from the fully charged level, in response to operating conditions.

BACKGROUND

Rechargeable batteries are used for many purposes. One application ofincreasing importance is as a power source for automobiles and othervehicles. In many cases, batteries are used to cold crank internalcombustion engines. They are also used to power a vehicle's cabinaccessories such as lights, audio systems, navigation systems, seatwarmers, etc. With the market establishment of hybrid and all electricautomobiles, rechargeable batteries are increasingly used to power thepropulsion of the automobile. Another common application forrechargeable batteries is in uninterruptible power supplies (UPS), whichprovide emergency power to a load in the event that a primary source ofpower goes down. UPSs are commonly used to ensure near instantaneousprotection from loss due to power outages for data centers,telecommunications equipment and other critical electrical equipment.

Battery Management Units (BMUs) are sometimes employed to control thecharging and to maintain a suitable state of charge in battery packs forapplications such as automotive and UPS applications. An alternator maybe used to deliver electronic charge to the batteries.

SUMMARY

A control system is designed or configured to control the state ofcharge of a battery or battery pack in a system containing a separatepower source, which is separate from the battery or battery pack. Inoperation, the battery or battery pack is called upon to intermittentlyprovide power for certain functions. The separate power source may be,for example, an AC electrical power source for a UPS or an engine of avehicle such as a micro hybrid vehicle. The battery may be a nickel zincaqueous battery. The control system may be designed or configured toimplement one or more of the following functions: monitoring the stateof charge of the battery or battery pack; directing rapid recharge ofthe battery or battery pack from the separate power source when thebattery or battery pack is not performing its functions; and directingcharge to fully charged level or a float charge level, which isdifferent from the fully charged level, in response to operatingconditions.

One aspect of the present disclosure concerns a method of controllingthe state of charge of one or more nickel-zinc batteries in a batterypack for a system that has a separate power source working inconjunction with the battery pack having a full charge mode and a floatcharge mode. This method includes determining that the state of chargeof the one or more nickel-zinc batteries in the battery pack is below adefined level associated with the full charge mode, then, while in thefull charge mode, applying charge to the battery pack at a first voltageto charge the one or more nickel-zinc batteries of the battery pack to afully charged state, and, subsequently, while operating the system inthe float charge mode, applying charge to the battery pack at a secondvoltage to maintain the one or more nickel-zinc batteries of the batterypack at a float charged state. The magnitude of the second voltage isbelow the magnitude of the first voltage. The charge to the fullycharged state and the charge to the float charge are provided from theseparate power source. In one aspect, providing the charge from theseparate power source to charge the one or more nickel-zinc batteries inthe battery pack is accomplished by providing power from the separatepower source to an alternator electrically coupled to the battery pack.

In certain embodiments, the separate power source may be an internalcombustion engine. In other embodiments, it may be an AC electric powersource. In a specific implementation, the battery pack contains exactly7 batteries, while in another, the battery pack contains exactly 8batteries.

In a specific implementation, the first voltage of the method is betweenabout 1.82 and 1.95 volts. In another specific implementation, thesecond voltage of the method is between about 1.75 and 1.87 volts.

In a particular embodiment, charging the one or more nickel-zincbatteries of the battery pack to the fully charged state is conducted ata rate of at least about 1 C. In another embodiment, charging the one ormore nickel-zinc batteries of the battery pack to the float charge stateis conducted at a rate of at least about 1 C.

In certain embodiments, the system may be an electrical system ofvehicle. In such cases, prior to determining that the state of charge ofthe one or more nickel-zinc batteries in the battery pack is below adefined level associated with the full charge mode, the method furtherincludes discharging the one or more nickel-zinc batteries in thebattery pack below the defined level associated with the full chargemode. Typically, the discharging is conducted to perform an electricalfunction for the vehicle. In certain embodiments, the electricalfunction is cold cranking an internal combustion engine of the vehicle,powering cabin electronics of the vehicle, and/or powering powersteering of the vehicle.

Additionally, the method may involve, prior to operating the system inthe float charge mode, partially discharging the one or more nickel-zincbatteries in the battery pack to perform the electrical function for thevehicle.

In another case, the system could be an uninterruptible power supply. Insuch a case, prior to determining that the state of charge of the one ormore nickel-zinc batteries in the battery pack is below a defined levelassociated with the full charge mode, the method includes dischargingthe one or more nickel-zinc batteries in the battery pack below thedefined level associated with the full charge mode, wherein thedischarging is conducted to provide backup power for the separate powersource.

In some embodiments, the method determines the temperature of batterypack and/or the one or more nickel-zinc batteries in the battery packand calculating the fully charged state as a function of temperature. Inone example, calculating the voltage applied for charging to the fullycharged state includes evaluating the following expression:Voltage(fully charged)=1.9−0.002*(Temperature in Celsius-22). In yetanother embodiment, the method includes determining the temperature ofbattery pack and/or the one or more nickel-zinc batteries in the batterypack and calculating the float charge state as a function oftemperature.

Another aspect of the disclosure concerns a controller for controllingthe state of charge of one or more nickel-zinc batteries in a batterypack. The battery pack may be designed or configured for use in a systemthat includes (a) a separate power source working in conjunction withthe battery pack and (b) a full charge mode and a float charge mode.This controller may be characterized by a communications interface forcommunicating with an alternator and/or an engine control unit, andlogic for (i) determining that the state of charge of the one or morenickel-zinc batteries in the battery pack is below a defined levelassociated with the full charge mode, (b) while in the full charge mode,applying charge to the battery pack at a first voltage to charge the oneor more nickel-zinc batteries of the battery pack to a fully chargedstate, and, (c) subsequently, while operating the system in the floatcharge mode, applying charge to the battery pack at a second voltage tomaintain the one or more nickel-zinc batteries of the battery pack at afloat charged state. The magnitude of the second voltage is below themagnitude of the first voltage. The charge for charging to the fullycharged state is provided from the separate power source. As well, thecharge for charging to the float charge state is provided from theseparate power source.

In certain embodiments, the controller logic of the controller may befurther designed or configured for determining that the separate powersource is operational prior to applying charge to the battery pack at afirst voltage to charge the one or more nickel-zinc batteries of thebattery pack to a fully charged state.

In a specific implementation, the first voltage of the controller isbetween about 1.87 and 1.95 volts. In another specific implementation,the second voltage of the controller is between about 1.75 and 1.87volts.

In a certain embodiment, the controller logic of the controller isfurther designed or configured for determining the temperature ofbattery pack and/or the one or more nickel-zinc batteries in the batterypack and calculating the fully charged state as a function oftemperature. In this case, calculating the fully charged state includesevaluating the following expression: Voltage(fullycharged)=1.9−0.002*(Temperature in Celsius-22).

In yet another embodiment, the controller logic of the controller isfurther designed or configured for determining the temperature ofbattery pack and/or the one or more nickel-zinc batteries in the batterypack and calculating the float charge state as a function oftemperature.

In one aspect, the controller logic of the controller is furtherdesigned or configured for charging the one or more nickel-zincbatteries of the battery pack to the fully charged state at a rate of atleast about 1 C. In another, the controller logic of the controller isfurther designed or configured for charging the one or more nickel-zincbatteries of the battery pack to the float charge state at a rate of atleast about 1 C.

These and other features of the disclosed embodiments will be set forthin further detail below, with reference to the associated drawings.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1A is a block diagram of an uninterruptible power supply integratedwith a power source and a load.

FIG. 1B is a block diagram of a vehicle having an electrical system witha battery pack and a BMU for providing electrical power to an electricstarter motor and other electric loads in the vehicle.

FIG. 2 is a flow chart depicting a process for controlling the state ofcharge in a battery at full charge and float charge.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION Introduction

Aspects of this disclosure concern battery charge management. Thebatteries managed as described herein may find use in systems where theywork in conjunction with a separate power source such as an internalcombustion engine or an AC source from the grid. In such systems, thebatteries are called upon to repeatedly perform a particular function orfunctions. In performing these functions, the batteries discharge tovarying degrees. The systems are designed so that the batteries' statesof charge are automatically maintained at high levels to permit thebatteries to reliably perform their functions when called upon. Incertain embodiments, the batteries are recharged during opportunitieswhen a separate power source (e.g., an internal combustion engine)becomes available to charge them.

Battery charge maintenance may be accomplished using a BatteryManagement Unit (BMU) or other appropriate controller. A BMU may includesensors or inputs for receiving sensed signals indicating one or morerelevant parameters concerning the batteries under its control. Suchparameters include the batteries' states of charge, temperature, voltagecurrently delivered by the batteries, coulombs passed after a triggeringevent, etc. The BMU may also include control logic dictating when and towhat degree its batteries are to be charged or discharged.

In various embodiments, the batteries are charged in two or moredifferent modes. In a first mode, termed a full charge operational mode,the batteries are fully charged from a discharged state to a state ofcharge that is considered fully charged for the type of battery (e.g.,2.3 V per cell for lead acid batteries and 1.93 V per cell for nickelzinc batteries). In another mode, termed a float charge operationalmode, the batteries that have been fully charged are maintained at afloat level (e.g., 1.87 V per cell for nickel zinc batteries). In thefloat mode, the batteries can be viewed as fully charged but they aremaintained at a lower voltage. Float charging may compensate forself-discharge or small load discharging (i.e., charging in which thestate of charge remains relatively high). Float charging typicallyinvolves trickling some charge into the batteries during normaloperation of the system in which the batteries are used.

Conventionally, float charging serves to maintain the batteries in afully charged state. Some conventional battery management units may besaid to employ full charge and float charge as different operationalmodes, but in each mode, these BMUs charge the batteries to the samefull state of charge. In some implementations described herein, the fullcharge mode is used when charging the batteries from a relatively deeplydischarged state and float charge is used to maintain the batteries in arelatively highly charged state but at a level lower than that of fullycharged batteries (e.g., about 95% of full charge). In other words, thefloat charge mode is used to maintain the batteries in a nearly fullycharged state, so that the batteries are available to cold crank anengine, power a UPS or take other action where they may be discharged toa significant degree. In some implementations, the batteries are fullycharged to a set full charge voltage level and then the charge voltagelevel is backed off to a float charge level. This approach promotes longlife without excessive overcharge.

In accordance with various embodiments described herein, a special floatcharge mode is used for batteries in which continuous or repeatedcharging to full charge will damage the batteries, possibly by producinggases (e.g., hydrogen and/or oxygen) more rapidly than these can berecombined internally or safely vented. Aqueous nickel-zinc batteriesare examples of batteries that can profit from this dual mode chargingstrategy. Other batteries that can similarly profit include silver-zinc,and nickel-metal hydride batteries. For convenience, nickel zincbatteries will be described herein as the batteries used in thedisclosed dual mode systems. However, it should be understood that otherbattery systems may be used with the disclosed embodiments.

Various applications may benefit from the embodiments disclosed herein.Two applications requiring careful maintenance of battery pack chargeare stationary backup storage (e.g., uninterruptible power supply orUPS) and micro-hybrid automotive or other vehicle electronic systems. Invarious micro-hybrid applications, the battery pack is called upon todeliver about 12-48V. UPS batteries generally provide a higher voltage.Both applications require the accurate determination and maintenance ofthe state of charge of the battery so that performance and life aremaximized.

Various sensors and sensing techniques may be employed to determinestate of charge and other battery conditions. In some embodiments, thestate of charge is determined by counting charge in and charge out withperiodic calibration to full charge or discharge. In some systems, DCimpedance is monitored as a means of gauging the aging and deteriorationof cell performance in a battery pack.

While the embodiments described herein typically refer to battery packs,it should be understood that much of the disclosure applies as well tosingle batteries that have their states of charge controlled asdescribed. A battery pack may be understood to be a set of any number of(typically) identical batteries or individual battery cells. They may beconfigured in a series, parallel or a mixture of both to deliver thedesired voltage, capacity, or power density. Components of battery packsinclude the individual batteries or cells, and the interconnects whichprovide electrical connectivity between them. Rechargeable battery packsmay also contain a temperature sensor and/or voltage sensor, which thebattery charger uses to detect the end of charging. Battery controllersare used to keep the voltage of the entire pack within defined levels.

System Components of a UPS

FIG. 1A presents a block diagram of an uninterruptible power supplyintegrated with a load. As shown in the figure, an AC power source 103normally provides the power for a power supply 105 designed to providepower as needed for one or more loads 107. Examples of such loadsinclude critical data processing and telecommunications equipment. Powersupply 105 is designed or configured to provide electrical power atappropriate levels of current and voltage for the driven loads. Powersource 103 is the primary power source for the loads, which means thatin normal operation, the loads 105 receive all their power from source103. The power source may be an electrical utility (the power grid), agenerator, etc.

In the event that AC power source 103 becomes unavailable through anunexpected (or expected) event, a battery backup power pack 109 takesthe place of power source 103 and makes power available to loads 107immediately or shortly after power source 103 becomes unavailable. Insome implementations, a diode is provided in the circuit between thebatteries and the power line. Backup batteries 109 are connected to abattery charger 111 which is configured to deliver charge the batterieswhen they discharge. Typically, charging occurs after the power source103 comes back up and can serve its role as primary power source forsupply 105 and ultimately loads 107. When source 103 is available, afraction of its electrical power may be made available to batterycharger 111 to recharge backup batteries 109 to a full or float state,as appropriate.

Battery management logic is incorporated in the system, typically eitheras a separate unit or within power supply 105. The battery managementlogic ensures that the power supply fast charges to full charge thenswitches to float.

System Components of a Micro-Hybrid Vehicle

FIG. 1B presents a block diagram of a vehicle having an electricalsystem 151 with a battery pack 153 and a BMU 155 for providingelectrical power to an electric starter motor 157 and other electricloads 159 in the vehicle. In certain embodiments, the vehicle is ahybrid or micro-hybrid vehicle. A hybrid vehicle generally has a fullelectric drive capable of propelling the car. A micro-hybrid does not.The micro-hybrid is a sub set of the full hybrid. That is itincorporates start stop and may be capable of capturing regenerativebraking energy and using the batteries in a cycling mode (when, aftercharging, the batteries discharge to support cabin loads) to improvefuel efficiency.

The BMU 155 and/or an engine control unit (ECU) 161 control aspects ofthe vehicle's electrical system. Of particular relevance these units maycontrol the battery pack 153 as it operates in discharge mode, fullcharge mode, and float charge mode.

The starter motor 157 and an alternator 163 are in mechanicalcommunication with an internal combustion engine (not shown). Both thebatteries and the alternator are connected to ground 171, which may bethe chassis of vehicle 151. The alternator 163 charges the batteries ofpack 153 while the engine is running. It may charge the batteries in afull charge mode or float mode as specified by BMU 155 and/or ECU 161.The alternator 163 may also power the vehicle loads 159 when the engineis running. However, under some circumstances, the battery pack 153 maypower some or all of the loads 159 while the engine is running. Incertain embodiments, the alternator is a digitally controlledalternator.

As mentioned, the batteries in a micro-hybrid or other vehicle can beused, for example, to assist in propelling the vehicle, cold cranking aninternal combustion engine in the vehicle, and/or powering electronicfunctionality to the cabin (e.g., radio, lights, seat warming, electricpower steering, the navigation system, etc.). This functionality isrepresented collectively by the vehicle loads block 159. Cold crankingis conducted by having battery pack 153 power the starter motor 157,which is an electric motor for rotating an internal combustion engine soas to initiate the engine's operation under its own power. It is poweredby high current and high voltage from the battery pack.

The BMU 155 takes as input the voltage and temperature from the batterypack 153. In the depicted embodiment, temperature is provided athermistor 165. As explained in more detail elsewhere, the BMU 155alone, or in conjunction with the ECU 161, determines whether to chargethe batteries of pack 153, and, if so, whether to fully charge them orfloat charge them. It makes this decision using, inter alia, the currentvoltage of the battery pack, the temperature of the battery pack, andthe amount of current (or charge) that has passed from the battery packsince it was last charged. A block 173 provides an input proportional tothe current into and out of the batteries. It may be used for state ofcharge estimation, for impedance measurement and/or to monitor charging.

In certain embodiments, the BMU communicates with the ECU over a “LINBus”, which is a serial single line communications protocol specificallydeveloped by automobile makers to create a low cost, although relativelyslow, network. The ECU may monitor the state of the engine (off/on), theengagement of gears and clutch etc. This and/or other information may beused to assess the intention of the driver. The ECU controls whether theengine turns off. It checks all the battery parameters and whether anyof the interlocks are active. For instance, it checks to determinewhether the seat belts are fastened or the hood latch is not engaged.These types of switches are an indicator of someone not in the vehicleor perhaps under the hood—a situation where the ECU would not turn theengine on if the batteries' state of charge is low. If the interlockcondition does not forbid turning the engine on and the batteries arebelow a threshold state of charge, the ECU may direct the engine to stayon to charge the batteries.

In accordance with certain embodiments, logic and associated hardware isdesigned or configured to apply different battery charge voltages forthe charge and float modes. As mentioned, a BMU and/or ECU may providesome such logic. In a micro-hybrid vehicle, the hardware mayadditionally include a digitally controlled alternator which can beinstructed to charge the nickel-zinc batteries to a first voltage whenin charge mode and to a second, lower, voltage when in float mode. Incertain embodiments, the alternator has at least the following threeoperating modes: disabled, battery charge mode and battery float mode.For UPS applications, a DC-DC converter and associated power supply canaccomplish the same result. A switch may also be employed.

In specific circumstances where the alternator imposes an excessive loadon the engine it may be advantageous to deactivate the alternator andallow the battery to maintain vehicle loads until engine can againhandle the vehicles electrical loads without excessive effort. When thebatteries take responsibility for powering electrical loads while theengine is running, the engine may be required to reassume thisresponsibility if the batteries' state of charge drops below pre-setlevels. Eventually, the engine will have to recharge the batteries,ideally when there is minimal load on the engine.

The alternator is typically sized based on the loads supported in thevehicle. For example, an alternator may be designed to provide 50-200 Adepending on features—heated seats etc. Even on small cars like such asa 2012 Ford Focus™ an alternator may need to be capable of delivering150 A so it seems to be sized to output enough current to support allloads and charge the battery after cranking. This figure will increaseas the electrical features are added that support more micro hybridfeatures like electric power steering. However the battery cyclingoperation will mean that there will be additional charge requirements.In some cases, the batteries must be able to accept charge at 200 A sothat we can absorb energy from the regenerative braking operation.

It should be noted that FIG. 1B shows only one battery pack (pack 153).In embodiments such as the one depicted, only a single nickel-zincbattery pack is used. It provides power to cabin electronics and to theengine starting system. This should be contrasted with designs where twodifferent battery systems are used: e.g., a lithium ion battery forpowering the cabin electronics and a lead acid battery to crank theinternal combustion engine. While various implementations of the systemsdescribed herein employ only a nickel zinc battery pack to provide allbattery functions, certain embodiments employ a nickel-zinc battery packto power only the vehicle loads or to cold crank the engine, and aseparate battery pack is employed for the other application.

For example, a nickel zinc battery pack may be employed for cabin loadsand another battery pack used for cold cranking. In a specificembodiment, a 48 volt system uses two batteries, a 12V one coupled witha 48V one. The latter is used to support cabin loads and help withcharge acceptance. The capacity of such battery may be about 10-20 Ahand can be satisfied by nickel-zinc battery pack which may containcylindrical or prismatic cells.

In some embodiments, the BMU, ECU, digitally controlled alternator,and/or other components of a control system (collectively a controller)includes a processor, chip, card, or board, or a combination of these,which includes logic for performing one or more control functions. Somefunctions of the controller may be combined in a single chip, forexample, an Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC), aprogrammable logic device (PLD) chip or field programmable gate array(FPGA), or similar logic. Such integrated circuits can combine logic,control, monitoring, and/or charging functions in a single programmablechip.

In general, the logic used to control battery charge and dischargetransitions can be designed or configured in hardware and/or software.In other words, the instructions for controlling the charge anddischarge circuitry may be hard coded or provided as software. In may besaid that the instructions are provided by “programming”. Suchprogramming is understood to include logic of any form including hardcoded logic in digital signal processors and other devices which havespecific algorithms implemented as hardware. Programming is alsounderstood to include software or firmware instructions that may beexecuted on a general purpose processor. In some embodiments,instructions for controlling application of voltage to the batteries andloads are stored on a memory device associated with the controller orare provided over a network. Examples of suitable memory devices includesemiconductor memory, magnetic memory, optical memory, and the like. Thecomputer program code for controlling the applied voltage can be writtenin any conventional computer readable programming language such asassembly language, C, C++, Pascal, Fortran, and the like. Compiledobject code or script is executed by the processor to perform the tasksidentified in the program.

In embodiments where the battery or battery pack is to be charged at twodistinct levels, a full charge state and a lower float charge state, thecontroller logic can be designed or configured to determine which chargestate is appropriate under the circumstances (engine state, battery SOC,etc.) and direct charging to the level associated with the determinedcharge state.

Charging at High Rates and to Float Voltage

Currently engine control units are designed to make decisions aboutbattery and engine usage based on parameters ECUs receive from BMUs. TheECUs and/or BMUs make these decisions as appropriate for lead acidbatteries. Lead acid batteries, however, have different requirementsthan nickel-zinc and certain other batteries. Lead acid batteries areslow to recharge and suffer from poor charge acceptance if they aredischarged below relatively modest states of charge.

When lead acid batteries are used in stationary storage (e.g., UPSapplications), both re-charging and floating is normally performed to aspecific voltage around 2.3V per cell. The voltage is maintained on thebattery so that the full state of charge is available when the mainpower source is disrupted. This is appropriate as lead acid batteriesare quite slow to recharge. They normally take several hours to rechargeeven at high voltages of 2.5V per cell. For backup applications,however, long time periods are typically available to recharge lead acidbatteries after they serve their roles as backup power sources.Therefore, the low recharge rate associated with charging at 2.3V istolerable.

The normal operation of lead batteries in micro-hybrid and othervehicles involves charging and floating at a fixed voltage between 13.8and 14.8V. A typical BMU algorithm charges to 14.4V and then tricklesthe charge to it in an attempt to maintain 14.4 V during normaloperation. This charge trickle is the float charge.

When the vehicle is stopped, the battery pack sustains the automotiveelectrical functions, but after re-start the battery must be recharged.If the next stop occurs before the optimum state of charge is achieved,then the state of charge of the batteries may decrease until they are nolonger able to crank the engine. Before this condition can occur, thevehicle's stop start functionality must be disabled to allow the batteryto regain an acceptable state of charge. In other words, the vehicle'sinternal combustion engine must continue running in situations where thestop start algorithm might otherwise require that the engine stoprunning. Such situations may include stops in traffic and coasting. Therunning engine is necessary to charge the batteries. It would beadvantageous to employ batteries having a rapid charge capability sothat the stop start functionality can continue to be utilized morefully. Nickel-zinc batteries are one type of battery that can chargemuch faster than lead acid batteries, thereby allowing the engine tostop more frequently.

Another issue encountered in both stationary and vehicle application isthe potential for low charge acceptance with lead acid batteries. Bothapplications may drive a lead acid battery to low states of charge. Ifthe battery remains in such state for any significant time, its leadelectrodes may form lead sulfate, which decreases the battery's futureability to accept charge.

In many ways, the nickel zinc aqueous battery compares favorably to thelead acid battery and may replace lead acid in some cases.

1. The nickel zinc battery recharges faster recharge than lead-acid. Atypical nickel-zinc battery pack for UPS applications can be chargedfrom 0-100% state of charge (to 1.9 volts) in 2 hours. By contrast, acomparable lead acid battery requires 8-10 hours to charge.

2. The battery does not degrade at low states of charge. A nickel-zincbattery can operate at 40-50% of its fully charge state without havingits performance degrade. It can reliably crank the engine at these lowstates of charge.

3. The battery can be used in a vehicle to both crank the engine and topower the cabin electronics. A single nickel-zinc battery pack can serveboth purposes.

4. The battery performs well over a wide temperature range, e.g., about5 to 60° C.

A nickel-zinc battery can be fully recharged in 2 hours or less from afully discharged state when the voltage of a constant current-constantvoltage charge procedure is maintained between about 1.9-1.93V per unitcell. Unfortunately, at this voltage, the steady state current at fullcharge may shorten the lifetime of the cell as a result of the rate ofgeneration of gas exceeding the rate of recombination of the gas withconsequent gas escape through the re-sealable vent. This is aconsequence of the use of a robust separator that inhibits the transportof gases from one electrode to the other. More specifically theseparator inhibits the transport of oxygen from the positive electrodeto the negative electrode. In various embodiments, the separator is apolyolefin micro-porous separator. The separator is typically used toprevent zinc dendrite penetration into the positive electrode. Examplesof nickel zinc batteries are described in U.S. patent application Ser.No. 11/116,113, filed Apr. 26, 2005; U.S. patent application Ser. No.11/346,861 (Now U.S. Pat. No. 7,550,230), filed Feb. 1, 2006; and U.S.patent application Ser. No. 13/549,322, filed Jul. 13, 2012.

In various embodiments, a battery pack containing nickel zinc batteriesor other batteries similarly susceptible to gassing during normal highrate charging is operated in a manner that both supports both high ratecharging and float charging to maintain the batteries in a high state ofcharge. The float charging is performed to a fixed voltage level (orstate of charge level) which is below a separately defined full chargelevel. When in full charge mode, the batteries are charged to the fullcharge level and when they are in float charge mode, they are chargedonly to the lower float level. The float level may be chosen to avoidproblems with the batteries that may occur if they are repeatedly orcontinuously charged to the full charge level, particularly at highrates. As mentioned, one of these problems is gassing at a faster ratethan recombination. For example, a nickel zinc battery under charge mayproduce hydrogen at the zinc electrode and oxygen at the nickelelectrode. At the full charge level, the rate of production of thesegases exceeds the rate at which they can recombine in the cell. At thefloat charge level, the rate of production is approximately the same as(or less than) the rate at which they can recombine. The full and floatcharge levels are typically a function of temperature and they may alsobe a function of the charge rate.

Certain parameters associated with the dual mode (different float chargeand full charge) for a nickel zinc battery will be set forth below.These parameters include the fixed voltage level for full charge and thedifferent fixed voltage level for float charge. Suitable charge ratesfor full charge and float charge are also pertinent.

ECU/BMU Operation

As mentioned, the logic for controlling the modes of battery operationin a vehicle is typically implemented in a BMU, an ECU, and/or adigitally controlled alternator. In certain embodiments, the controlsystem provides both fast charge and a float charge mode accomplished ata relatively low voltage level. In certain embodiments, the BMU monitorsthe state of charge of nickel zinc battery and reports the status via acommunication link to the vehicle's ECU. The ECU can then makeappropriate decisions as to whether to use the batteries or alternatorto power the vehicle's electrical load. In this context, the ECU maydetermine whether to change the charge voltage or disable a digitallycontrolled alternator, for example.

In some implementations, a BMU provides information about a nickel zincbattery pack to the vehicle's Engine Control Unit, which decides, amongother things, (1) whether to deliver charge to the battery pack from thealternator, and (2) whether the motor can stop. Decision 2 is based onthe state of charge of the batteries in the pack. Basically, thebatteries must be sufficiently charged to restart the motor after thecar is stopped. Decision 1 is made while the vehicle is running and thebattery charge state is determined to be low enough to require furthercharging. Depending on the circumstances, the further charging can beeither float charging or full recharging.

In certain embodiments, the micro-hybrid vehicle battery pack andassociated BMU will have at least three operational states or modes:discharge, charge to full charge, and float charge.

In the discharge mode, nickel-zinc batteries may discharge to a pointwhere full charge is needed when batteries drive vehicle loads while theinternal combustion engine is not operating. Examples include using thebatteries to cold crank the internal combustion engine and poweringcabin accessories while the engine is off (e.g., the engine is shut downduring coasting).

Conditions that trigger full charge of micro-hybrid Ni—Zn batteriesinclude turning on the internal combustion engine—and engaging thealternator—after the batteries have reached a low state of charge.Conditions that will result in float charging of micro-hybrid Ni—Znbatteries include running the internal combustion engine while thealternator powers cabin accessories. Typically, the batteries will be ina relatively high state of charge when float charge is applied. When thebatteries are at a relatively lower state of charge, full charge may beapplied. In some cases, the ECU determines whether to apply full chargeof float charge. In addition to considering the batteries' state ofcharge, the ECU may consider whether the engine is accelerating ofdecelerating. Acceleration may result in less current being delivered bythe alternator. Thus, a hard acceleration may result in disabling thealternator or in float charging if the batteries are in a relatively lowstate of charge. Typically, float charge does not require a high currentdraw.

However, when the internal combustion engine is operating near peakcapacity, e.g., during acceleration or uphill climbing, the system mayeither float charge the battery and have the alternator poweraccessories or disable the alternator and have the battery power theaccessories. The latter option may be preferable if the battery is fullycharged or at an acceptable state of charge. In other conditions wherethe vehicle engine is not working as hard (light acceleration or slightincline) then the float charge option may be preferable. This allows thebattery to be ready for the opportunity to shut down the engine duringcoast. This provides a significant opportunity for fuel savings.

As mentioned, the nickel-zinc battery is able to charge relativelyrapidly and thereby maintain an appropriate state of charge for thevarious vehicle functions it is asked to undertake. Further, thenickel-zinc battery has a wide range of states of charge suitable forstarting a car. This is useful in extreme traffic conditions, where thebattery is frequently called on to power vehicle loads.

In some embodiments, float charging is conducted at less than theoptimal float charge states until the engine stress decreases to a levelpermitting full charge to be achieved.

Table 1 presents a state diagram in accordance with certainimplementations of the disclosed vehicle control system. The states(modes of battery operation) are determined as a function of theengine's level of exertion of the nickel zinc battery's state of charge.The state of charge may be determined during or in advance of adischarge operation (e.g., cold cranking or driving cabin electronics)or after polling by the BMU. In certain embodiments, a high state ofcharge may be at least about 70%, a low state of charge may be at mostabout 40%, and an intermediate state of charge is state in between thehigh and low states of charge. In certain embodiments, an engine runningat high stress is an engine operating at a significant fraction of itsmaximum capacity (e.g., maximum power or rotations per minute).

TABLE 1 High SOC Intermediate SOC Low SOC Engine Float Charge Mode FloatCharge Mode Full Charge Mode Running (low stress) Engine Discharge ModeDischarge Mode Full Charge Mode Running (high stress) Engine DischargeMode Discharge Mode NA not Running

In a sample implementation, the BMU or other battery control logicinitially determines that the nickel zinc batteries in a battery packhave dropped to an intermediate state of charge (e.g., 60%). The BMUinforms the ECU of the state of charge and the ECU then makes a decisionregarding whether to charge the batteries and if so to which state.Alternatively, the BMU itself determines that the batteries should becharged and optionally determines the level of charge and informs theECU. The ECU takes into account the condition of the engine anddetermines whether to charge the batteries to the designated level(float). If the decision is made to charge the batteries, the ECUdirects the alternator to provide charge at an appropriate level (fullor float level) to the nickel zinc batteries. As explained, a digitallycontrolled alternator may be used for this purpose. Of course, othermechanisms may be employed to control the charge to the battery pack.The alternator may also power cabin accessories while the nickel zincbatteries are in float mode, or in full charge mode for that matter.

In certain embodiments, the BMU determines when the battery is fullycharged by monitoring the current level in a constant voltage phase orby tracking the net charge input. When the battery is determined to befully charged the applied charge voltage is lowered to the designatedfloat voltage for the prevailing temperature. For example, a 7 cell “12Volt” battery pack can absorb charge currents in excess of 5 C (200 Ampon a 40 Ah battery). Once the target state of charge is achieved thebattery can be floated at a lower voltage (1.82-1.87V at roomtemperature) to maintain the state of charge while the alternatorsimultaneously supports the electronic loads of the car. Full chargewould be implemented again after a discharge event that lowered thebatteries' state of charge to a level requiring full recharge. Using twovoltage levels in this way makes it possible to optimize both the fastcharge and the service life of the battery. The system therefore isready to service multiple vehicle loads or handle multiple power outagesoccurring in rapid succession.

An example process flow is depicted in FIG. 2. Initially, the BMU orother monitoring element determines that the battery state of charge isbelow a threshold associated with full charge mode. Block 203. Then, thecontroller directs the alternator to fully charge the battery. Block205. Thereafter, when the battery is fully charged, the controllerdirects the alternator to float charge the battery to a state of chargebelow that of the full charge. Block 207. In the manner, the battery islikely to be ready to discharge and perform its function reliably.

Table 1 indicates that when the engine is not running, the batteryshould not be in a low charge state (indicated by NA in the table).However, in certain implementations, there is an option in which whenthe engine is not running but while it is in an operating mode (e.g.,the key is in the ignition and turned on) and the battery is at lowstate of charge the system presents the option of turning the engine onto raise the battery's state of charge.

In a typical implementation, the BMU continuously or frequently monitorsthe batteries current or other property to allow rapid adjustment of thestate of charge. In some cases, the adjustments are performed on theorder of milliseconds or faster. In some embodiments, the BMU polls orotherwise determines the state of charge on a schedule.

UPS Operation

In certain embodiments, the UPS battery pack and associated BMU willhave at least three operational states or modes: discharge, charge fullcharge, and float charge. In discharge mode, the UPS nickel-zincbatteries are discharged to a point where full charge is needed. In thismode, the batteries may be discharged to provide power while the normalpower source (e.g., an AC power source as shown in FIG. 1A) is down andunavailable to immediately recharge the batteries. Conditions that willtrigger full charging of UPS nickel-zinc batteries include bringing theprimary power source back on line after the nickel-zinc batteries havedischarged to power the load while the primary source was down. Acondition that will result in float charging UPS nickel-zinc batteriesinclude maintaining the batteries state of charge at nearly 100% afterthe batteries have been brought to full charge. In some implementationsfor UPS applications, float charging is used to keep the battery at fullcharge and compensate for self-discharge.

In certain embodiments employing nickel zinc batteries, the systemswitches the charger in and out when the battery voltage drops to alevel that might indicate 90-95% state of charge. This hysteresischarging means that the initial state of charge can vary between 90-100%when a power outage occurs.

Parameters

1. SOC and Voltages for Fully Charged and Float Ni—Zn Cells

As mentioned, in order to maintain full charge over an extended servicelife, the float voltage applied to nickel-zinc batteries may, in certainembodiments, be between about 1.8-1.9V over a range of temperaturescentered on room temperature. The full charge voltage may be betweenabout 1.8 and 1.95V over the range of temperatures.

The full charge level may be a function of temperature. In oneimplementation, the charge level is determined by the followingexpression:

V=1.9−0.002*(T-22)

where T is in degrees Centigrade. Basically 2 mV change per cell perdegree centigrade. For a 7 cell battery this would be 14 mV per degreeCentigrade.

In certain embodiments, the float voltage is also determined as aninverse function of temperature. However, the float charge voltage maybe less sensitive to temperature than the full charge voltage.

2. Charge Rates

For micro-hybrid applications, the charge rate for batteries may be upto about 5 C in certain embodiments. Typically, the range may be about 1C to 5 C. As an example, in operation, while driving typical vehicleloads, such as vehicle lights, radio, and fan, a 40 Ah cell maydischarge by about 2% (e.g., from about 80% to 78% state of charge).This represents, e.g., about a 1 minute stop at 45 A discharge levels.The state of charge of this or similar discharges can be recovered byrecharging at 100 A for about 30 seconds or less.

Of course, charging conducted at a fixed voltage will dictate thecurrent drawn to the batteries, and hence the charge rate, at least atthe end of a charge program where voltage control applies. At 1 C thetime at room temperature to 80% SOC (32 Ah) from 0% SOC is approximately48 minutes before the current drops due to the charge voltage limitation(e.g., 1.9V). For a float charge at, e.g., 1.85V or lower, the currentwill fall off at below 50% SOC so the input current may be the same (asfor full charge mode) but for a much shorter time. After it hits thevoltage limit the current will fall off more rapidly to a lower valuethan would be observed at the 1.9V cap. It is this lower steady statevalue that prevents any damage to the batteries during float.

Description of Nickel Zinc Batteries

The Positive Electrode

The nickel hydroxide electrode has been used as the positive electrodein high power and high energy nickel-metal hydride batteries,nickel-cadmium batteries and nickel-zinc batteries. The nickel positiveelectrode generally includes electrochemically active nickel oxide orhydroxide or oxyhydroxide and one or more additives to facilitatemanufacturing, electron transport, wetting, mechanical properties, etc.For example, a positive electrode formulation may include nickelhydroxide particles, zinc oxide, cobalt oxide (CoO), cobalt metal,nickel metal, and a thixotropic agent such as carboxymethyl cellulose(CMC). Note that the metallic nickel and cobalt may be provided aschemically pure metals or alloys thereof. The positive electrode may bemade from paste containing these materials and a binder such as apolymeric fluorocarbon (e.g., Teflon™).

In certain embodiments, the nickel hydroxide electrode includes nickelhydroxide (and/or nickel oxyhydroxide), cobalt/cobalt compound powder,nickel powder and binding materials. The cobalt compound is included toincrease the conductivity of the nickel electrode. In one embodiment,the nickel positive electrode includes at least one of cobalt oxide,cobalt hydroxide, and/or cobalt oxyhydroxide; optionally coated onnickel hydroxide (or oxyhydroxide) particles.

A nickel foam matrix may be used to support the electro-active nickeloxide (e.g., Ni(OH)₂) electrode material. The foam substrate thicknessmay be may be between 15 and 60 mils. The thickness of the positiveelectrode, which includes nickel foam filled with the electrochemicallyactive and other electrode materials, ranges from about 16-24 mils,preferably about 20 mils thick. In one embodiment, a nickel foam densityof about 350 g/m² and thickness ranging from about 16-18 mils is used.

In certain embodiments, the batteries include a non-nickel positiveelectrode (e.g., a silver or air electrode). The silver-zinc systememploys silver-oxide as the positive electrode, while the zinc-airsystem employs a gas-diffusion electrode containing catalysis for oxygenreduction-production.

The Separator

Typically, a separator will have small pores. In certain embodiments theseparator includes multiple layers. The pores and/or laminate structuremay provide a tortuous path for zinc dendrites and therefore effectivelybar penetration and shorting by dendrites. Preferably, the porousseparator has a tortuosity of between about 1.5 and 10, more preferablybetween about 2 and 5. The average pore diameter is preferably at mostabout 0.2 microns, and more preferably between about 0.02 and 0.1microns. Also, the pore size is preferably fairly uniform in theseparator. In a specific embodiment, the separator has a porosity ofbetween about 35 and 55% with one preferred material having 45% porosityand a pore size of 0.1 micron.

In a certain embodiments, the separator includes at least two layers(and in some cases exactly two layers)—a barrier layer to block zincpenetration and a wetting layer to keep the cell wet with electrolyte,allowing ionic current to flow. This is generally not the case withnickel cadmium cells, which employ only a single separator materialbetween adjacent electrode layers.

Performance of the cell may be aided by keeping the positive electrodewet and the negative electrode relatively dry. Thus, in someembodiments, the barrier layer is located adjacent to the negativeelectrode and the wetting layer is located adjacent to the positiveelectrode. This arrangement improves performance of the cell bymaintaining electrolyte in intimate contact with the positive electrode.

In other embodiments, the wetting layer is placed adjacent to thenegative electrode and the barrier layer is placed adjacent to thepositive electrode. This arrangement aids recombination of oxygen at thenegative electrode by facilitating oxygen transport to the negativeelectrode via the electrolyte.

The barrier layer is typically a microporous membrane. Any microporousmembrane that is ionically conductive may be used. Often a polyolefinhaving a porosity of between about 30 and 80 percent, and an averagepore size of between about 0.005 and 0.3 micron will be suitable. In apreferred embodiment, the barrier layer is a microporous polypropylene.The barrier layer is typically about 0.5-4 mils thick, more preferablybetween about 1.5 and 4 mils thick.

The wetting (or wicking) layer may be made of any suitable wettableseparator material. Typically the wetting layer has a relatively highporosity e.g., between about 50 and 85% porosity. Examples includepolyamide materials such as nylon-based as well as wettablepolyethylene, polypropylene and cellulose-based materials. Oneparticular material is cellulose impregnated and/or coated withpolyvinylalcohol. In certain embodiments, the wetting layer is betweenabout 1 and 10 mils thick, more preferably between about 3 and 6 milsthick. Examples of separate materials that may be employed as thewetting material include NKK VL100 (NKK Corporation, Tokyo, Japan),Freudenberg FS2213E, Scimat 650/45 (SciMAT Limited, Swindon, UK), andVilene FV4365.

Other separator materials known in the art may be employed. Asindicated, nylon-based materials and microporous polyolefins (e.g.,polyethylenes and polypropylenes) are very often suitable. Embodimentsare directed toward selectively sealing separators. Virtually anyseparator material will work so long as it can be sealed via applicationof one of the heat sources described herein. In some embodiments,separator materials of differing melting points are employed, in otherembodiments separators that seal are employed in conjunction with thosethat do not seal under the conditions to which one or both ends of thejellyroll are exposed.

Another consideration in the electrode/separator design is whether toprovide the separator as simple sheets of approximately the same widthas the electrode and current collector sheet or to encase one or bothelectrodes in separator layers. In the latter example, the separatorserves as a “bag” for one of the electrode sheets, effectivelyencapsulating an electrode layer. In some embodiments, enveloping thenegative electrode in a separator layer will aid in preventing dendriteformation. Specific heat sealing embodiments are described in moredetail below in relation to the section entitled, “Electrodes andSeparator Assembly—The Jellyroll.”

The Electrolyte

In certain embodiments pertaining to nickel-zinc cells, the electrolytecomposition limits dendrite formation and other forms of materialredistribution in the zinc electrode. Examples of suitable electrolytesare described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,215,836 issued to M. Eisenberg on Jun.1, 1993, which is hereby incorporated by reference. In some cases, theelectrolyte includes (1) an alkali or earth alkali hydroxide, (2) asoluble alkali or earth alkali fluoride, and (3) a borate, arsenate,and/or phosphate salt (e.g., potassium borate, potassium metaborate,sodium borate, sodium metaborate, and/or a sodium or potassiumphosphate). In one specific embodiment, the electrolyte includes about4.5 to 10 equiv/liter of potassium hydroxide, from about 2 to 6equiv/liter boric acid or sodium metaborate and from about 0.01 to 1equivalents of potassium fluoride. A specific preferred electrolyte forhigh rate applications includes about 8.5 equiv/liter of hydroxide,about 4.5 equivalents of boric acid and about 0.2 equivalents ofpotassium fluoride.

Embodiments are not limited to the electrolyte compositions presented inthe Eisenberg patent. Generally, any electrolyte composition meeting thecriteria specified for the applications of interest will suffice.Assuming that high power applications are desired, then the electrolyteshould have very good conductivity. Assuming that long cycle life isdesired, then the electrolyte should resist dendrite formation. In thepresent invention, the use of borate and/or fluoride containing KOHelectrolyte along with appropriate separator layers reduces theformation of dendrites thus achieving a more robust and long-lived powercell.

In a specific embodiment, the electrolyte composition includes an excessof between about 3 and 5 equiv/liter hydroxide (e.g., KOH, NaOH, and/orLiOH). This assumes that the negative electrode is a zinc oxide basedelectrode. For calcium zincate negative electrodes, alternateelectrolyte formulations may be appropriate. In one example, anappropriate electrolyte for calcium zincate has the followingcomposition: about 15 to 25% by weight KOH, about 0.5 to 5.0% by weightLiOH.

According to various embodiments, the electrolyte may include a liquidand a gel. The gel electrolyte may include a thickening agent such asCARBOPOL™ available from Noveon of Cleveland, Ohio. In a preferredembodiment, a fraction of the active electrolyte material is in gelform. In a specific embodiment, about 5-25% by weight of the electrolyteis provided as gel and the gel component includes about 1-2% by weightCARBOPOL™.

In some cases, the electrolyte may contain a relatively highconcentration of phosphate ion as discussed in U.S. Pat. No. 7,550,230,entitled “Electrolyte Composition for Nickel Zinc Batteries,” filed Feb.1, 2006, by J. Phillips and S. Mohanta, which is incorporated herein byreference for all purposes.

In certain embodiments, the nickel zinc battery used in the disclosedembodiments is configured to operate in an electrolyte “starved”condition. Such cells have relatively low quantities electrolyte inrelation to the amount of active electrode material. They can be easilydistinguished from flooded cells, which have free liquid electrolyte ininterior regions of the cell. Starved format cells are discussed in U.S.patent application Ser. No. 11/116,113, filed Apr. 26, 2005, titled“Nickel Zinc Battery Design,” published as US 2006-0240317 A1, which ishereby incorporated by reference for all purposes. It may be desirableto operate a cell at starved conditions for a variety of reasons. Astarved cell is generally understood to be one in which the total voidvolume within the cell electrode stack is not fully occupied byelectrolyte. In a typical example, the void volume of a starved cellafter electrolyte fill may be at least about 10% of the total voidvolume before fill.

The Negative Electrode

As applied to nickel-zinc cells, the negative electrode includes one ormore electroactive sources of zinc or zincate ions optionally incombination with one or more additional materials such assurfactant-coated particles, corrosion inhibitors, wetting agents, etc.as described below. When the electrode is fabricated it will becharacterized by certain physical, chemical, and morphological featuressuch as coulombic capacity, chemical composition of the active zinc,porosity, tortuosity, etc.

In certain embodiments, the electrochemically active zinc source mayinclude one or more of the following components: zinc oxide, calciumzincate, zinc metal, and various zinc alloys. Any of these materials maybe provided during fabrication and/or be created during normal cellcycling. As a particular example, consider calcium zincate, which may beproduced from a paste or slurry containing, e.g., calcium oxide and zincoxide.

Active material for a negative electrode of a rechargeable zinc alkalineelectrochemical cell may include zinc metal (or zinc alloy) particles.If a zinc alloy is employed, it may in certain embodiments includebismuth and/or indium. In certain embodiments, it may include up toabout 20 parts per million lead. A commercially available source of zincalloy meeting this composition requirement is PG101 provided by NorandaCorporation of Canada. In one embodiment, the electrochemically activezinc metal component of nickel zinc cells contains less than about 0.05%by weight of lead. Tin may also be used in the zinc negative electrode.

In certain embodiments, the zinc metal particles may be coated with tinand/or lead. The zinc particles may be coated by adding lead and tinsalts to a mixture containing zinc particles, a thickening agent andwater. The zinc metal can be coated while in the presence of zinc oxideand other constituents of the electrode. A zinc electrode containinglead or tin coated zinc particles is generally less prone to gassingwhen cobalt is present in the electrolyte. The cycle life and shelf lifeof the cells is also enhanced, as the zinc conductive matrix remainsintact and shelf discharge is reduced. Exemplary active materialcompositions suitable for negative electrodes of this invention arefurther described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/467,993,entitled “Pasted Zinc Electrode for Rechargeable Nickel-Zinc Batteries,”by J. Phillips et. al., filed May 18, 2009, which is hereby incorporatedby reference for all purposes.

The zinc active material may exist in the form of a powder, a granularcomposition, fibers, etc. Preferably, each of the components employed ina zinc electrode paste formulation has a relatively small particle size.This is to reduce the likelihood that a particle may penetrate orotherwise damage the separator between the positive and negativeelectrodes.

Considering the electrochemically active zinc components in particular(and other particulate electrode components as well), such componentspreferably have a particle size that is no greater than about 40 or 50micrometers. In one embodiment the particle size is less than about 40microns, i.e. the average diameter is less than about 40 microns. Thissize regime includes lead coated zinc or zinc oxide particles. Incertain embodiments, the material may be characterized as having no morethan about 1% of its particles with a principal dimension (e.g.,diameter or major axis) of greater than about 50 micrometers. Suchcompositions can be produced by, for example, sieving or otherwisetreating the zinc particles to remove larger particles. Note that theparticle size regimes recited here apply to zinc oxides and zinc alloysas well as zinc metal powders.

In addition to the electrochemically active zinc component(s), thenegative electrode may include one or more additional materials thatfacilitate or otherwise impact certain processes within the electrodesuch as ion transport, electron transport (e.g., enhance conductivity),wetting, porosity, structural integrity (e.g., binding), gassing, activematerial solubility, barrier properties (e.g., reducing the amount ofzinc leaving the electrode), corrosion inhibition etc.

Various organic materials may be added to the negative electrode for thepurpose of binding, dispersion, and/or as surrogates for separators.Examples include hydroxylethyl cellulose (HEC), carboxymethyl cellulose(CMC), the free acid form of carboxymethyl cellulose (HCMC),polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polystyrene sulfonate (PSS), polyvinylalcohol (PVA), nopcosperse dispersants (available from San Nopco Ltd. ofKyoto Japan), etc.

In certain embodiments, polymeric materials such as PSS and PVA may bemixed with the paste formation (as opposed to coating) for the purposeof burying sharp or large particles in the electrode that mightotherwise pose a danger to the separator.

When defining an electrode composition herein, it is generallyunderstood as being applicable to the composition as produced at thetime of fabrication (e.g., the composition of a paste, slurry, or dryfabrication formulation), as well as compositions that might resultduring or after formation cycling or during or after one or morecharge-discharge cycles while the cell is in use such as while poweringa portable tool.

Various negative electrode compositions within the scope of thisinvention are described in the following documents, each of which isincorporated herein by reference: PCT Publication No. WO 02/39517 (J.Phillips), PCT Publication No. WO 02/039520 (J. Phillips), PCTPublication No. WO 02/39521, PCT Publication No. WO 02/039534 and (J.Phillips), US Patent Publication No. 2002182501. Negative electrodeadditives in the above references include, for example, silica andfluorides of various alkaline earth metals, transition metals, heavymetals, and noble metals.

Finally, it should be noted that while a number of materials may beadded to the negative electrode to impart particular properties, some ofthose materials or properties may be introduced via battery componentsother than the negative electrode. For example, certain materials forreducing the solubility of zinc in the electrolyte may be provided inthe electrolyte or separator (with or without also being provided to thenegative electrode). Examples of such materials include phosphate,fluoride, borate, zincate, silicate, stearate. Other electrode additivesidentified above that might be provided in the electrolyte and/orseparator include surfactants, ions of indium, bismuth, lead, tin,calcium, etc.

For example, in some embodiments, the negative electrode includes anoxide such as bismuth oxide, indium oxide, and/or aluminum oxide.Bismuth oxide and indium oxide may interact with zinc and reduce gassingat the electrode. Bismuth oxide may be provided in a concentration ofbetween about 1 and 10% by weight of a dry negative electrodeformulation. It may facilitate recombination of oxygen. Indium oxide maybe present in a concentration of between about 0.05 and 1% by weight ofa dry negative electrode formulation. Aluminum oxide may be provided ina concentration of between about 1 and 5% by weight of a dry negativeelectrode formulation.

In certain embodiments, one or more additives may be included to improvecorrosion resistance of the zinc electroactive material and therebyfacilitate long shelf life. The shelf life can be critical to thecommercial success or failure of a battery cell. Recognizing thatbatteries are intrinsically chemically unstable devices, steps may betaken to preserve battery components, including the negative electrode,in their chemically useful form. When electrode materials corrode orotherwise degrade to a significant extent over weeks or months withoutuse, their value becomes limited by short shelf life.

Specific examples of anions that may be included to reduce thesolubility of zinc in the electrolyte include phosphate, fluoride,borate, zincate, silicate, stearate, etc. Generally, these anions may bepresent in a negative electrode in concentrations of up to about 5% byweight of a dry negative electrode formulation. It is believed that atleast certain of these anions go into solution during cell cycling andthere they reduce the solubility of zinc. Examples of electrodeformulations including these materials are included in the followingpatents and patent applications, each of which is incorporated herein byreference for all purposes: U.S. Pat. No. 6,797,433, issued Sep. 28,2004, titled, “Negative Electrode Formulation for a Low Toxicity ZincElectrode Having Additives with Redox Potentials Negative to ZincPotential,” by Jeffrey Phillips; U.S. Pat. No. 6,835,499, issued Dec.28, 2004, titled, “Negative Electrode Formulation for a Low ToxicityZinc Electrode Having Additives with Redox Potentials Positive to ZincPotential,” by Jeffrey Phillips; U.S. Pat. No. 6,818,350, issued Nov.16, 2004, titled, “Alkaline Cells Having Low Toxicity Rechargeable ZincElectrodes,” by Jeffrey Phillips; and PCT/NZ02/00036 (publication no. WO02/075830) filed Mar. 15, 2002 by Hall et al.

Conductive fibers added to the negative electrode may also serve thepurpose of irrigating or wetting the electrode. Surfactant coated carbonfibers are one example of such material. However, it should beunderstood that other materials may be included to facilitate wetting.Examples of such materials include titanium oxides, alumina, silica,alumina and silica together, etc. Generally, when present, thesematerials are provided in concentrations of up to about 10% by weight ofa dry negative electrode formulation. A further discussion of suchmaterials may be found in U.S. Pat. No. 6,811,926, issued Nov. 2, 2004,titled, “Formulation of Zinc Negative Electrode for Rechargeable CellsHaving an Alkaline Electrolyte,” by Jeffrey Phillips, which isincorporated herein by reference for all purposes.

Zinc negative electrodes contain materials that establish conductivecommunication between the electrochemically active component of the zincnegative electrode and the nickel positive electrode. The inventors havefound that introduction of surfactant-coated particles into the negativeelectrode increases the overall current carrying capability of theelectrode, particularly surfactant coated carbon particles, as describedin U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/852,345, filed Aug. 6, 2010,titled, “Carbon Fiber Zinc Negative Electrode,” by Jeffrey Phillips,which is incorporated herein by reference for all purposes.

As mentioned, a slurry/paste having a stable viscosity and that is easyto work with during manufacture of the zinc electrode may be used tomake the zinc negative electrode. Such slurry/pastes have zinc particlesoptionally coated by adding lead and tin salts to a mixture containingthe zinc particles, a thickening agent and a liquid, e.g. water.Constituents such as zinc oxide (ZnO), bismuth oxide (Bi₂O₃), adispersing agent, and a binding agent such as Teflon are also added.Binding agents suitable for this aspect include, but are not limited to,P.T.F.E., styrene butadiene rubber, polystyrene, and HEC. Dispersingagents suitable for this aspect include, but are not limited to, a soap,an organic dispersant, an ammonium salt dispersant, a wax dispersant. Anexample of commercially available dispersants in accord with this aspectof the invention is a Nopcosperse™ (trade name for a liquid series ofdispersants available from Nopco Paper Technology Australia Pty. Ltd.).Liquids suitable for this aspect include, but are not limited to, water,alcohols, ethers and mixtures thereof.

Cell Construction

The disclosed methods and systems may be implemented with a wide rangeof nickel-zinc cell sizes and formats. For example, the embodimentspresented herein may employ prismatic cell formats, as well as variouslarger format cylindrical cells employed for various non-portableapplications. The capacity requirements for vehicle applications maydictate prismatic batteries. The requirements for UPS applications aresometimes lower, so cylindrical cells may be used in some cases.

In some embodiments, the interior of the cell container, or otherstructural component of the cell, may be coated with a material to aidhydrogen recombination. Any material that catalyzes hydrogenrecombination may be used. An example of such a material is silveroxide.

Although the cell is generally sealed from the environment, the cell maybe permitted to vent gases from the battery that are generated duringcharge and discharge. In some embodiments, a nickel zinc cell isdesigned to operate at this pressure and even higher (e.g., up to about300 psi) without the need to vent. This may encourage recombination ofany oxygen and hydrogen generated within the cell. In certainembodiments, the cell is constructed to maintain an internal pressure ofup to about 450 psi and or even up to about 600 psi. In otherembodiments, a nickel zinc cell is designed to vent gas at relativelylower pressures. This may be appropriate when the design encouragescontrolled release of hydrogen and/or oxygen gases without theirrecombination within the cell. Some details of the structure of a ventcap and disk, as well as the carrier substrate itself, are found in thefollowing patent applications which are incorporated herein by referencefor all purposes: PCT/US2006/015807 filed Apr. 25, 2006 andPCT/US2004/026859 filed Aug. 17, 2004 (publication WO 2005/020353 A3).

Example Implementation

In some micro-hybrid systems, the battery pack has 7 nickel-zincbatteries and in other micro-hybrid systems, the battery pack has 8nickel-zinc batteries. Some example implementation details follow:

8 cell pack—Charge can go to 15.2 volts (higher at lower temperatures;e.g., up to 15.5 volts)—float to 13.8 volts (and up to 14.8 volts insome implementations), which is consistent with the voltage accepted forcabin electronics in many vehicle designs.

7 cell pack—charge to 13.5 volts (although higher voltages may beacceptable for short periods to allow 200 A inrush currents)—float to12.95 volts.

Float voltages are optionally imposed by digitally controlled regulator.

Battery maintained between 75-85% state of charge

100-75 A recharge limited by the output voltage/current of thealternator

Recharging the battery to 80% SOC in 4 seconds at 13V after 20 sec 15 Adrain

Electrical Characteristics Nominal Voltage 1.65 V Typical Capacity¹ 40Ah Minimum Capacity¹ 39 Ah AC Impedance (1 kHz @ 100% SOC) <0.6 mΩ DCInternal Resistance (400 A × 10 s pulse @ 50% <1.2 mΩ SOC) GravimetricEnergy Density 65 Wh/kg Volumetric Energy Density 125 Wh/l GravimetricPower Density 860 W/kg Volumetric Power Density 1725 W/l ¹@ 25° C. using1 C rate discharge and manufacturer recommended charge algorithm

Operating Parameters Recommended Charging Algorithm @ 25° C. 40 A CC to1.9 V 1.9 V CV to 2 A Recommended Charge Current (@25° C. to 1.9 V) 40 AContinuous Charge Current (@25° C. to 1.9 V) 160 A Max. Pulse ChargeCurrent (<80% SOC, 10 s, 400 A <160 A Avg.) Recommended DischargeVoltage Limit 1.1 V Recommended Pulse Discharge Voltage Limit 0.8 VRecommended Discharge Current (@25° C. to up to 120 A 1.1 V) Max.Continuous Discharge Current (@25° C. to up to 400 A 1.1 V) Max. PulseDischarge Current (30 s, @25° C. to 600 A 0.8 V) Operating Temperature−30° C. to +65° C. Recommended Charge Temperature  0° C. to +40° C.Recommended Storage Temperature (Short-Term) −30° C. to +65° C.Recommended Storage Temperature (Long-Term)  0° C. to +40° C.

Other Embodiments

In accordance with various embodiments, a system (e.g., a BMU) isprovided for nickel zinc cells to allow such cells to serve one or morefunctions of a battery pack in a UPS or micro-hybrid vehicle. In somecases, the system works for both nickel zinc and lead acid cells, eventhough these cells have very different characteristics.

In some embodiments, this is accomplished by transmitting batterytype-ID code to the ECU: one code for lead acid batteries and anothercode for nickel zinc batteries. The ECU may employ one algorithm for,e.g., nickel zinc batteries and a different algorithm for, e.g., leadacid batteries. In an alternative embodiment, the ECU employs a singlealgorithm for each of two more battery types. For example, the ECU hasonly an algorithm for lead acid batteries. In such cases, the BMU mayneed to adjust the battery parameters fed to the ECU. The BMU modifiescertain operating characteristics of the nickel zinc parameters beforehanding them to the ECU. As an example, the nickel zinc battery may havea 40% state of charge, but BMU announces to the ECU that it has 60%state of charge. In this example, if a lead acid battery had a 40% SOC,the ECU would require that the engine not stop until the lead acidbatteries were charged to 60% SOC. However, nickel zinc batteries servetheir functions adequately at 40% SOC, so it would be improper for theECU algorithm to make a battery charging decision based on 40% SOC for anickel zinc battery, which the ECU does not understand.

In certain embodiments, the BMU is capable of modifying the voltage orcurrent provided by the alternator to the batteries. This allows the BMUto protect the batteries from overcharge and other problems that couldarise from the ECU's assumption that it is working with a different typeof battery.

The foregoing describes the instant invention and its presentlypreferred embodiments. Numerous modifications and variations in thepractice of this invention will occur to those skilled in the art. Suchmodifications and variations are encompassed within the followingclaims. The entire disclosures of all references cited herein areincorporated by reference for all purposes.

What is claimed is:
 1. A method of controlling the state of charge ofone or more nickel-zinc batteries in a battery pack for a system having(i) a separate power source working in conjunction with the battery packand (ii) a full charge mode and a float charge mode, the methodcomprising: (a) determining that the state of charge of the one or morenickel-zinc batteries in the battery pack is below a defined levelassociated with the full charge mode; (b) while in the full charge mode,applying charge to the battery pack at a first voltage to charge the oneor more nickel-zinc batteries of the battery pack to a fully chargedstate, wherein the charge to the fully charged state is provided fromthe separate power source; and (c) subsequently, while operating thesystem in the float charge mode, applying charge to the battery pack ata second voltage to maintain the one or more nickel-zinc batteries ofthe battery pack at a float charged state, wherein the charge to thefloat charge state is provided from the separate power source, andwherein the magnitude of the second voltage is below the magnitude ofthe first voltage.
 2. The method of claim 1, further comprising: before(b), determining that the separate power source is operational.
 3. Themethod of claim 1, wherein the separate power source is an internalcombustion engine.
 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the separate powersource is an AC electric power source.
 5. The method of claim 1, whereinproviding the charge from the separate power source to charge the one ormore nickel-zinc batteries in the battery pack in (b) and/or (c)comprises providing power from the separate power source to analternator electrically coupled to the battery pack.
 6. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the system is an electrical system of vehicle.
 7. Themethod of claim 6, further comprising, prior to (a), discharging the oneor more nickel-zinc batteries in the battery pack below the definedlevel associated with the full charge mode, wherein the discharging isconducted to perform an electrical function for the vehicle.
 8. Themethod of claim 7, wherein the electrical function comprises coldcranking an internal combustion engine of the vehicle, powering cabinelectronics of the vehicle, and/or powering power steering of thevehicle.
 9. The method of claim 7, further comprising, prior to (c)partially discharging the one or more nickel-zinc batteries in thebattery pack to perform the electrical function for the vehicle.
 10. Themethod of claim 1, wherein the system is an uninterruptible powersupply.
 11. The method of claim 10, further comprising, prior to (a),discharging the one or more nickel-zinc batteries in the battery packbelow the defined level associated with the full charge mode, whereinthe discharging is conducted to provide backup power for the separatepower source.
 12. The method of claim 1, wherein the battery packcontains exactly 7 batteries.
 13. The method of claim 1, wherein thebattery pack contains exactly 8 batteries.
 14. The method of claim 1,wherein, the first voltage is between about 1.82 and 1.95 volts.
 15. Themethod of claim 1, wherein, the second voltage is between about 1.75 and1.87 volts.
 16. The method of claim 1, further comprising determiningthe temperature of battery pack and/or the one or more nickel-zincbatteries in the battery pack; and calculating the fully charged stateas a function of temperature.
 17. The method of claim 16, whereincalculating the fully charged state comprises evaluating the followingexpression: Voltage(fully charged)=1.9−0.002*(Temperature inCelsius-22).
 18. The method of claim 1, further comprising determiningthe temperature of battery pack and/or the one or more nickel-zincbatteries in the battery pack; and calculating the float charge state asa function of temperature.
 19. The method of claim 1, wherein chargingthe one or more nickel-zinc batteries of the battery pack to the fullycharged state in (b) is conducted at a rate of at least about 1 C. 20.The method of claim 1, wherein charging the one or more nickel-zincbatteries of the battery pack to the float charge state in (c) isconducted at a rate of at least about 1 C.
 21. A controller forcontrolling the state of charge of one or more nickel-zinc batteries ina battery pack for a system having (a) a separate power source workingin conjunction with the battery pack and (b) a full charge mode and afloat charge mode, the controller comprising: a communications interfacefor communicating with an alternator and/or an engine control unit; andlogic for (i) determining that the state of charge of the one or morenickel-zinc batteries in the battery pack is below a defined levelassociated with the full charge mode; (ii) while in the full chargemode, applying charge to the battery pack at a first voltage to chargethe one or more nickel-zinc batteries of the battery pack to a fullycharged state, wherein the charge to the fully charged state is providedfrom the separate power source; and (iii) subsequently, while operatingthe system in the float charge mode, applying charge to the battery packat a second voltage to maintain the one or more nickel-zinc batteries ofthe battery pack at a float charged state, wherein the charge to thefloat charge state is provided from the separate power source, andwherein the magnitude of the second voltage is below the magnitude ofthe first voltage.
 22. The controller of claim 21, wherein thecontroller logic is further designed or configured for determining,before (ii), that the separate power source is operational.
 23. Thecontroller of claim 21, wherein, the first voltage is between about 1.87and 1.95 volts.
 24. The controller of claim 21, wherein, the secondvoltage is between about 1.75 and 1.87 volts.
 25. The controller ofclaim 21, wherein the controller logic is further designed or configuredfor determining the temperature of battery pack and/or the one or morenickel-zinc batteries in the battery pack; and calculating the fullycharged state as a function of temperature.
 26. The controller of claim25, wherein calculating the fully charged state comprises evaluating thefollowing expression: Voltage(fully charged)=1.9−0.002*(Temperature inCelsius-22).
 27. The controller of claim 21, wherein the controllerlogic is further designed or configured for determining the temperatureof battery pack and/or the one or more nickel-zinc batteries in thebattery pack; and calculating the float charge state as a function oftemperature.
 28. The controller of claim 21, wherein the controllerlogic is further designed or configured for charging the one or morenickel-zinc batteries of the battery pack to the fully charged state in(ii) at a rate of at least about 1 C.
 29. The controller of claim 21,wherein the controller logic is further designed or configured forcharging the one or more nickel-zinc batteries of the battery pack tothe float charge state in (iii) at a rate of at least about 1 C.